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In case of morality and dogma.And when they speak Ex Catedra.Last case was in 1953,i think. In all other cases - they coud be wrong. Popes who copied ERE was wrong,Borgias was wrong,those from pornocracy period was wrong,and now Franciszek is wrong.

Castrato - from 15 century,and it was one of Byzantine ideas which come to Italy after fall of Constantinopole. But,it was byzantine tradition,for unknown reason taken by papacy.Maybe Borgias liked it?

Schizm could not be mended.Becouse for ERE emperors church was part of their state,and they were leaders who decided what is wrong and good. They even castrated boys to serv on court,becouse they thought that Emperor among eunuchs is mirror of God among angels. Anybody in West would oppose that...

Twer was Moscov competitor for mongols affirmation - but,they manage to outsmart them/if i remember correctly,Twer prince married mongol princes,moscov agents killed her and blamed it on Twer,and mongols choosed Moscov. But,till 1485 they were independent. Lithuania border in 1408 was 80km...

Berlin existed,as small slavic stronghold arleady taken by germans.But you are right,it probably remain small and unimportant. Mongol invasion - they beaten everybody,so ERE would suffer,too.Probably as much as Hungary. HRE - you are right. Hungary - they never fought seriously ERE in OTL,why...

Without Ottomans,Hungary would never fall,which mean weaker Habsburgs. Moscov would be weaker without title of "third Rome" - and fighting ERE,not ally. Both mean surviving Poland. We have Europe with more relatively strong states,and,as a result,more normal wars - but no such things as WW1 and...

Easily done - if everybody except Varagians do not betrayed ERE emperor,he would win ,or at least do not lost. What next? turks would coming,true - but,it do not matter then they must win.